Emmetropia

Empometypia
  • 文章类型: Journal Article
    目的:提出一组封闭形式的分析方程,以在单个步骤中基于临床测量的输入参数创建一致的眼睛模型平衡。这些模型补充了文献中现有的迭代方法。
    方法:介绍了两种不同的方法,两者都将角膜和晶状体视为等效的薄晶状体。第一,称为高斯模型,首先将屈光不正定义为轴向屈光力(或屈光距离)与整个眼睛屈光力之间的差,可以通过填写每个幂的公式来扩展。所得方程可以求解屈光不正,轴向长度,角膜力,晶状体度数或角膜和晶状体之间的距离作为其他四个参数的函数。第二种方法使用聚散度计算来提供替代表达式,假设屈光不正位于角膜平面。这两种模型都是针对通常在成年人眼中发现的生物识别范围进行探索的。
    结果:高斯和聚散度模型都会立即将输入数据平衡为人体生理范围内的工作眼模型,远远超出各种示例中的演示。高斯模型的方程比较复杂,虽然收敛模型经历了更多的奇异性,尽管在琐碎或极不可能的参数组合中。
    结论:所提出的方程形成了一个灵活而强大的平台,可以从临床数据中创建眼睛模型。可能的应用在于创建动物眼睛模型或为真实的生物特征数据和眼睛尺寸之间的关系提供通用参考。
    OBJECTIVE: To present a set of closed-form analytical equations to create a consistent eye model balance based on clinically measured input parameters in a single step. These models complement the existing iterative approaches in the literature.
    METHODS: Two different approaches are presented, both considering the cornea and lens as equivalent thin lenses. The first, called the Gaussian model, starts by defining the refractive error as the difference between the axial power (or dioptric distance) and the whole eye power, which can be expanded by filling in the formulas for each power. The resulting equation can be solved for either the refractive error, axial length, corneal power, lens power or the distance between the cornea and the lens as a function of the other four parameters. The second approach uses vergence calculations to provide alternative expressions, assuming that the refractive error is located at the corneal plane. Both models are explored for a biometric range typically found in adult human eyes.
    RESULTS: The Gaussian and vergence models each instantly balance the input data into a working eye model over the human physiological range and far beyond as demonstrated in various examples. The equations of the Gaussian model are more complicated, while the vergence model experiences more singularities, albeit in trivial or highly unlikely parameter combinations.
    CONCLUSIONS: The proposed equations form a flexible and robust platform to create eye models from clinical data. Possible applications lie in creating animal eye models or providing a generic reference for real biometric data and the relationships between the ocular dimensions.
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  • 文章类型: Journal Article
    背景:本研究调查了患者对老花眼的认识及其治疗方法和他们首选的近视力矫正方法。
    方法:在沙特阿拉伯,785名参与者(年龄在35至60岁之间)在线完成了结构化调查,包括硬拷贝和直接面试。调查由28个项目组成,分为三个部分。它旨在记录参与者对老花眼及其屈光矫正的认识和偏好。进行非参数检验和描述性分析以分析参与者的反应。
    结果:大约一半的参与者有困难的近视力活动,例如阅读报纸或使用手机。在所有参与者中,76%的人没有意识到老花眼。未矫正老花眼的患病率为785的48%。大多数(82%)认为眼镜可以矫正老花眼。大多数人报告说,他们在使用眼镜时没有经历社会污名(87%的参与者)。当被问及他们是否知道除了眼镜之外的管理方法时,72%的人根本没有回应。大多数参与者没有早期使用多焦点隐形眼镜或滴眼液矫正老花眼的知识(67%和82%,分别)。在本研究中,注意到使用眼镜以外的老花眼矫正方法的一些倾向。最后,参与者的年龄,性别,区域,教育,和收入对他们的反应的基本部分有统计学上的显著影响(p<0.05)。
    结论:老花眼是一种非常普遍的年龄相关性眼病,由于缺乏意识或不愿戴眼镜,很大一部分病例没有得到纠正。迫切需要对老花眼及其矫正方法进行更有效的健康教育。
    BACKGROUND: This study investigated patients\' awareness of presbyopia and its management approaches and their preferred methods for near vision correction.
    METHODS: In Saudi Arabia, 785 participants (aged between 35 and 60 years) completed a structured survey online, consisting of hard copies and direct interviews. The survey consisted of twenty-eight items divided into three parts. It was designed to record participants\' awareness of and preferences for presbyopia and its refractive corrections. Nonparametric tests and descriptive analyses were conducted to analyse participants\' responses.
    RESULTS: Approximately half of the participants had difficulty with near vision activities, such as reading newspapers or using mobile phones. Among all the participants, 76% were not aware of presbyopia. The prevalence of uncorrected presbyopia was 48% of the 785. The majority (82%) felt that spectacles were acceptable for correction of presbyopia. Most reported that they did not experience social stigma when using reading spectacles (87% of participants). When asked if they were aware of management approaches other than spectacles, 72% responded with not at all. Most participants had no earlier knowledge of the use of multifocal contact lenses or eye drops for presbyopia correction (67% and 82%, respectively). In the present study, some tendencies to use corrective approaches to presbyopia other than spectacles were noted. Finally, participants\' age, sex, region, education, and income had a statistically significant impact on essential parts of their responses (p < 0.05).
    CONCLUSIONS: Presbyopia is a highly prevalent age-related ocular disorder, and a significant percentage of cases are uncorrected due to a lack of awareness or reluctance to wear spectacles. More efficient health education about presbyopia and its corrective alternatives is urgently needed.
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  • 文章类型: Journal Article
    在研究和建模中心凹和周围视觉功能以及视觉发育时,眼部波阵面像差用于描述视网膜图像形成。然而,经典的眼睛模型产生的像差结构通常与实际的眼睛不同,旋转对称和同轴表面等简化限制了许多现代眼睛模型的有用性。利用五个实验室先前测量的宽视场眼波前像差,通过光学设计射线追踪软件对28个正视眼(-0.50至0.50D)和20个近视(-1.50至-4.50D)的单个光学眼模型进行了逆向工程。这涉及一个错误函数,操纵27个解剖参数,如曲率,非球面,厚度,倾斜,和平移-约束在解剖极限内-驱动每个模型的输出像差以与输入(测量的)像差一致。从这些合成的解剖参数中,还定义了三个代表性的眼睛模型:具有最小像差的理想正视眼(0.00D),以及典型的正视眼(-0.02D)和近视眼(-2.75D)。根据输出畸变和已建立的人口期望,对队列和个体模型进行了介绍和评估。如塞德尔像差理论和眼色像差。该模型的应用包括双焦点隐形眼镜对周边光学质量的影响,眼科矫正方式的比较,以及在调节过程中物体空间在视网膜上的投影。
    Ocular wavefront aberrations are used to describe retinal image formation in the study and modeling of foveal and peripheral visual functions and visual development. However, classical eye models generate aberration structures that generally do not resemble those of actual eyes, and simplifications such as rotationally symmetric and coaxial surfaces limit the usefulness of many modern eye models. Drawing on wide-field ocular wavefront aberrations measured previously by five laboratories, 28 emmetropic (-0.50 to +0.50 D) and 20 myopic (-1.50 to -4.50 D) individual optical eye models were reverse-engineered by optical design ray-tracing software. This involved an error function that manipulated 27 anatomical parameters, such as curvatures, asphericities, thicknesses, tilts, and translations-constrained within anatomical limits-to drive the output aberrations of each model to agree with the input (measured) aberrations. From those resultant anatomical parameters, three representative eye models were also defined: an ideal emmetropic eye with minimal aberrations (0.00 D), as well as a typical emmetropic eye (-0.02 D) and myopic eye (-2.75 D). The cohorts and individual models are presented and evaluated in terms of output aberrations and established population expectations, such as Seidel aberration theory and ocular chromatic aberrations. Presented applications of the models include the effect of dual focus contact lenses on peripheral optical quality, the comparison of ophthalmic correction modalities, and the projection of object space across the retina during accommodation.
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  • 文章类型: Journal Article
    最近确定轴向功率,眼睛在一定眼轴长度的眼睛中获得清晰的视网膜图像所需的屈光力,和眼睛的总屈光力都可以通过双指数函数描述为年龄的函数(Rozema,2023年)。受到这个结果的启发,这项工作探讨了这些双指数函数是否能够模拟文献中描述的各种已知的屈光发展过程,例如即时化,持续性远视,正在发展远视,近视,即时稳态,调制发展,或者增强肥沃的远足。此外,这些方程可以调整,以适应20岁以下学龄期近视和假晶状体眼的屈光发展。所有这些课程都与先前文献中报道的课程非常相似,同时提供了对轴向和全眼力潜在变化的估计。
    It was recently established that the axial power, the refractive power required by the eye for a sharp retinal image in an eye of a certain axial length, and the total refractive power of the eye may both be described by a bi-exponential function as a function of age (Rozema, 2023). Inspired by this result, this work explores whether these bi-exponential functions are able to simulate the various known courses of refractive development described in the literature, such as instant emmetropization, persistent hypermetropia, developing hypermetropia, myopia, instant homeostasis, modulated development, or emmetropizing hypermetropes. Moreover, the equations can be adjusted to match the refractive development of school-age myopia and pseudophakia up to the age of 20 years. All of these courses closely resemble those reported in the previous literature while simultaneously providing estimates for the underlying changes in axial and whole eye power.
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  • 文章类型: Journal Article
    在动物模型和人类中的研究表明,屈光状态在出生后发育过程中通过闭环负反馈系统得到优化,该系统使用视网膜图像散焦作为误差信号,一种机制叫做受精。检测散焦及其标志的传感器驻留在视网膜本身中。视网膜和/或视网膜色素上皮(RPE)可能释放生化信使以改变脉络膜厚度并调节下层巩膜的生长速率。出现了一个中心问题:如果美化作为一个闭环系统运行,为什么它不能阻止近视的发展?最近在年轻的人类受试者中进行的实验表明,(1)正视视网膜可以完美地区分真实的正散焦和模拟的散焦,并触发瞬时眼轴缩短或伸长,分别。(2)引人注目的是,当施加正散焦时,近视视网膜抑制眼睛生长的能力降低。(3)在8cyc/deg以下的低空间频率信息下引起正视视网膜的双向响应,这使得光学高阶像差不太可能发挥作用。(4)用于检测散焦迹象的视网膜机制涉及比较光谱的蓝色(S锥)和红色末端(LM锥)的散焦模糊,但是,再次,近视视网膜没有反应,至少在短期实验中没有.这表明它不能完全触发正视化反馈回路的抑制臂。因此,有一个开放的反馈回路,近视发展成为“开环”。
    Studies in animal models and humans have shown that refractive state is optimized during postnatal development by a closed-loop negative feedback system that uses retinal image defocus as an error signal, a mechanism called emmetropization. The sensor to detect defocus and its sign resides in the retina itself. The retina and/or the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) presumably releases biochemical messengers to change choroidal thickness and modulate the growth rates of the underlying sclera. A central question arises: if emmetropization operates as a closed-loop system, why does it not stop myopia development? Recent experiments in young human subjects have shown that (1) the emmetropic retina can perfectly distinguish between real positive defocus and simulated defocus, and trigger transient axial eye shortening or elongation, respectively. (2) Strikingly, the myopic retina has reduced ability to inhibit eye growth when positive defocus is imposed. (3) The bi-directional response of the emmetropic retina is elicited with low spatial frequency information below 8 cyc/deg, which makes it unlikely that optical higher-order aberrations play a role. (4) The retinal mechanism for the detection of the sign of defocus involves a comparison of defocus blur in the blue (S-cone) and red end of the spectrum (L + M-cones) but, again, the myopic retina is not responsive, at least not in short-term experiments. This suggests that it cannot fully trigger the inhibitory arm of the emmetropization feedback loop. As a result, with an open feedback loop, myopia development becomes \"open-loop\".
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  • 文章类型: Journal Article
    目的:比较双侧植入非衍射扩展视力人工晶状体(IOL)后的视力结果和患者满意度。
    方法:Iladevi白内障和IOL研究中心,印度。
    方法:前瞻性,随机对照试验。
    方法:接受双侧白内障手术的患者使用扩展视力IOL(Vivity,爱尔康实验室,美国)随机分配到:I组双眼都有正视向目标的IOL植入,或II组IOL植入术,使用-0.5屈光度的微型单视(D)。术后6个月评估的结果指标为:无辅助和矫正近视力(UNVA,CNVA)在40厘米(cm),无辅助和校正距离(UDVA,CDVA)和中间(UIVA,CIVA)视力在66cm。介视对比敏感度,双眼散焦曲线,我们还评估了患者报告的眼镜独立性问卷和McAlinden问卷的满意度.
    结果:70名患者纳入研究。Ⅰ组和Ⅱ组分别有34例和33例患者完成随访。II组的双眼UNVA明显更好(0.260.05vs0.220.08LogMAR,P=0.03)。II组所需的阅读添加量明显较低。UIVA(0.09+0.06vs0.07+0.08LogMAR,P=0.15)和UDVA(0.02+0.04vs0.02+0.05LogMAR,P=0.78)组间无显著差异。两组间的介孔对比敏感度无显著差异。II组的双眼散焦曲线显示平均视力在-2.0至-3.0屈光度之间明显更好。两组患者都有较高的眼镜独立性,没有患者报告吞咽困难。
    结论:双眼UNVA明显更好,与靶向双眼正视眼相比,使用非衍射扩展视觉IOL靶向微型单视时具有可比的UDVA和介眼对比敏感度。
    OBJECTIVE: To compare visual outcomes and patient satisfaction after bilateral implantation of a nondiffractive extended vision intraocular lens (IOL) when targeting emmetropia vs mini-monovision.
    METHODS: Iladevi Cataract & IOL Research Centre, Ahmedabad, India.
    METHODS: Prospective, randomized controlled trial.
    METHODS: Patients undergoing bilateral cataract surgery with an extended vision IOL (Vivity) randomized to group I-IOL implantation with emmetropic target in both eyes or group II-IOL implantation with mini-monovision of -0.5 diopters (D) were included in this study. Outcome measures evaluated 6 months postoperatively were unaided and corrected near visual acuity (UNVA, CNVA) at 40 cm and unaided and corrected distance (UDVA, CDVA) and intermediate (UIVA, CIVA) visual acuity at 66 cm. Mesopic contrast sensitivity, binocular defocus curve, Patient-Reported Spectacle Independence Questionnaire, and satisfaction on the McAlinden questionnaire were also assessed.
    RESULTS: 70 patients enrolled in this study. 34 and 33 patients in groups I and II, respectively, completed follow-up. Binocular UNVA was significantly better in group II (0.26 ± 0.05 vs 0.22 ± 0.08 logMAR, P = .03). Reading add required in group II was significantly lower. UIVA (0.09 ± 0.06 vs 0.07 ± 0.08 logMAR, P = .15) and UDVA (0.02 ± 0.04 vs 0.02 ± 0.05 logMAR, P = .78) were not significantly different between groups. Mesopic contrast sensitivity was not significantly different between the groups. Binocular defocus curve showed significantly better mean visual acuities between -2.0 D and -3.0 D in group II. Patients in both groups had high levels of spectacle independence, with no patient reporting dysphotopsia.
    CONCLUSIONS: Binocular UNVA was significantly better, with comparable UDVA and mesopic contrast sensitivity when targeting mini-monovision with the nondiffractive extended vision IOL as compared with targeting binocular emmetropia.
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  • 文章类型: Journal Article
    目的:全面识别CorvisST测量的不同程度近视和近视的角膜生物力学差异。
    方法:系统评价和荟萃分析。
    方法:电子数据库,包括PubMed,Embase,和WebofScience,系统搜索了使用CorvisST比较各种程度的近视和emmetrops之间的角膜生物力学的研究。计算加权平均差和95%置信区间。在高度和非高度近视以及近视和emmetrops中进行了荟萃分析,分别。
    结果:本研究包括11项研究。近视眼和近视眼之间的荟萃分析包括1947个近视眼和621个近视眼,在高度和非高度近视中,443个高度近视和449个非高度近视被纳入荟萃分析.近视显示角膜在第一次压平(A1t)时的时间明显更长,而在第二次压平(A2L)时的长度明显低于emmetrops。高近视表现出明显更大的A1t,第二次压平时的速度(A2v),最高凹度处的变形幅度(HC-DA),最高凹度处的峰值距离(HC-PD)和第二压平处的时间减少(A2t)和最高凹度的半径(HC-R)。
    结论:近视眼角膜生物力学不同,尤其是高度近视。与非高度近视相比,高度近视的角膜在第一次扁平时变形得较慢,在第二次鼓掌期间更快,并显示出更大的变形幅度,表明更大的弹性和粘度。
    OBJECTIVE: To comprehensively identify the corneal biomechanical differences measured by Corvis ST between different degrees of myopia and emmetropia.
    METHODS: Systematic review and meta-analysis.
    METHODS: Electronic databases, including PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science, were systematically searched for studies comparing the corneal biomechanics among various degrees of myopes and emmetropes using Corvis ST. The weighted mean differences and 95% confidence intervals were calculated. Meta-analysis was performed in high and nonhigh myopes and in myopes and emmetropes, respectively.
    RESULTS: Eleven studies were included in this study. The meta-analysis among myopes and emmetropes included 1947 myopes and 621 emmetropes, and 443 high myopes and 449 nonhigh myopes were included in the meta-analysis among high and nonhigh myopia. Myopes showed the cornea with significantly longer time at the first applanation (A1t) and lower length at the second applanation (A2L) than emmetropes. High myopes showed significantly greater A1t, velocity at the second applanation (A2v), deformation amplitude at the highest concavity (HC-DA), and peak distance at the highest concavity (HC-PD) and decreased time at the second applanation (A2t) and radius of the highest concavity (HC-R).
    CONCLUSIONS: Corneal biomechanics is different in myopia, especially in high myopia. Compared with nonhigh myopes, the corneas of high myopes deformed slower during the first applanation, faster during the second applanation, and showed greater deformation amplitude, indicating greater elasticity and viscidity.
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  • 文章类型: Journal Article
    为了使眼睛保持最佳焦点,透镜光学和视网膜位置之间需要精确的协调,一种在脊椎动物中由遗传学控制的机制,视觉反馈,和可能的眼内压(IOP)。1虽然在脊椎动物中对潜在的过程进行了深入的研究,它们在节肢动物中仍然难以捉摸,尽管视觉反馈可能并不重要。2节肢动物的眼睛在经历大量生长的同时如何保持功能?这里,我们测试一个共同的生理过程,渗透调节,3可以调节Thermonectusmarmoratus潜水甲虫捕食幼虫的复杂相机型眼睛的生长。蜕皮时,他们的眼管在不到一个小时的时间内伸长,和渗透压测量表明,这种增长之前是血淋巴渗透压的短暂增加。确定晶状体至视网膜间距的支持细胞的组织学评估显示肿胀而不是新细胞的添加。此外,正如预期的那样,蜕皮后用高渗介质处理幼虫会导致远视(远视)眼睛,这是由于未能适当延长眼管,并导致狩猎成功受损。这项研究表明,渗透调节对于适当聚焦的眼睛可能是无处不在的重要性。
    For eyes to maintain optimal focus, precise coordination is required between lens optics and retina position, a mechanism that in vertebrates is governed by genetics, visual feedback, and possibly intraocular pressure (IOP).1 While the underlying processes have been intensely studied in vertebrates, they remain elusive in arthropods, though visual feedback may be unimportant.2 How do arthropod eyes remain functional while undergoing substantial growth? Here, we test whether a common physiological process, osmoregulation,3 could regulate growth in the sophisticated camera-type eyes of the predatory larvae of Thermonectus marmoratus diving beetles. Upon molting, their eye tubes elongate in less than an hour, and osmotic pressure measurements reveal that this growth is preceded by a transient increase in hemolymph osmotic pressure. Histological evaluation of support cells that determine the lens-to-retina spacing reveals swelling rather than the addition of new cells. In addition, as expected, treating larvae with hyperosmotic media post-molt leads to far-sighted (hyperopic) eyes due to a failure of proper lengthening of the eye tube and results in impaired hunting success. This study suggests that osmoregulation could be of ubiquitous importance for properly focused eyes.
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  • 文章类型: Journal Article
    目的:探讨老花眼患者屈光状态对老花眼进展的影响。
    方法:本回顾性观察研究纳入2018年5月至2022年8月在中山大学附属第七医院和深圳职业技术学院就诊的老花眼患者。收集6个月和1年时的调节幅度(AMP)和近加功率(ADD)。
    结果:本研究共纳入103例老花眼患者:42例近视患者,23名正视患者,和38名远视患者。不同屈光状态患者的ΔAMP(6个月)和ΔADD(6个月)差异有统计学意义,正视眼和远视患者的值均高于近视患者(均P<0.001)。远视患者的ΔAMP(1年)和ΔADD(1年)明显高于正视患者和近视患者(均P<0.001)。正视患者的ΔADD(1年)大于近视患者(P=0.045),但屈光不正和近视患者的ΔAMP(1年)没有显着差异(P=0.090)。
    结论:远视患者的老花眼进展相对明显,其次是近视。远视患者可能需要更频繁地更换老花镜的处方。
    OBJECTIVE: To explore the impact of refractive status on presbyopia progression among patients with presbyopia.
    METHODS: This retrospective observational study included patients with presbyopia who visited the Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University and Shenzhen Polytechnic Medical College between May 2018 and August 2022. The amplitude of accommodation (AMP) and near addition power (ADD) at 6 months and 1 year were collected.
    RESULTS: A total of 103 patients with presbyopia were included in this study: 42 patients with myopia, 23 patients with emmetropia, and 38 patients with hyperopia. There were significant differences in ΔAMP(6-month) and ΔADD(6-month) among patients with different refractive statuses, and the values of emmetropic patients and hyperopic patients were higher than in myopic patients (all P < 0.001). The ΔAMP(1-year) and ΔADD(1-year) of hyperopic patients were significantly higher than in emmetropic patients and myopic patients (all P < 0.001). The ΔADD(1-year) of emmetropic patients was greater than in myopic patients (P = 0.045), but there were no significant differences in ΔAMP(1-year) between patients with emmetropia and myopia (P = 0.090).
    CONCLUSIONS: The progression of presbyopia in hyperopic patients was relatively more significant than for emmetropia, followed by myopia. The prescription of presbyopia glasses might need to be replaced more frequently in patients with hyperopia.
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  • 文章类型: Journal Article
    研究的目的是评估不同年龄犬屈光不正的发生和范围。共有99名临床健康者,混合品种中头颅犬被纳入研究,并根据当前的人类/宠物类比图分为三个不同的年龄组:40名成年人(23名男性,17名女性,1-8岁,3-70公斤),21名老年人(14名男性,7位女性,6-11岁,7-42kg),和38名老年病科(22名男性,16位女性,8-13岁,5-45公斤)。所有的狗都接受了眼科检查,包括Schirmer撕裂试验,眼压测定,生物显微镜,和检眼镜。在自动折射术之前,既没有滴眼剂也没有药物镇静剂。使用手持式Retinomax3(Righton)自动验光仪对屈光状态进行双侧评估。使用Statisticav12软件(ANOVA和t检验)对结果进行统计分析。P值<0.05被认为是显著的。Emmetropia,定义为>-0.5D和<+0.5D的屈光状态,在36%的成年人身上发现了,43%的老年人,和38%的老年患者。1%的成年人出现屈光参差,当两只眼睛的屈光力不同≥1.0近视≤-0.5D和远视≥0.5D时,在23%和41%的成人眼球中发现了9.5%的老年犬和5.5%的老年犬以及24%和33%的老年犬和15%和47%的老年犬,分别。成年犬和老年犬的近视最大值分别为-2.5D和-2.75D,分别。成年犬和老年犬远视的最大值分别为1.75D和2.5D,分别。组间没有发现统计学上显著的相关性。屈光不正是不同年龄狗的常见屈光状态。在所有年龄组中,屈光不正混床犬中最常见的屈光状态是远视。
    The purpose of the study was to evaluate the occurrence and range of refractive errors in dogs of different ages. A total of 99 clinically healthy, mixed-breed mesocephalic dogs were included in the study and divided into three different age groups according to the current human/pet analogy chart: 40 adults (23 males, 17 females, 1-8 years old, 3-70 kg), 21 seniors (14 males, 7 females, 6-11 years old, 7-42 kg), and 38 geriatrics (22 males, 16 females, 8-13 years old, 5-45 kg). All the dogs underwent an ophthalmic examination, including Schirmer tear test, tonometry, biomicroscopy, and ophthalmoscopy. Neither eye drops nor pharmacological sedatives were administered before the autorefractometry. The refractive states were assessed bilaterally using a hand-held Retinomax 3 (Righton) autorefractor. The results underwent statistical analysis using Statistica v12 software (ANOVA and t-test). A P-value < 0.05 was considered as significant. Emmetropia, defined as a refractive state > -0.5 D and < +0.5 D, was found in 36% of the adult, 43% of the senior, and 38% of the geriatric patients. Anisometropia was found in 1% of the adult, 9.5% of the senior and 5.5% of the geriatric dogs when the refractive power of the two eyes differed ≥ 1.0 myopia ≤ -0.5 D and hyperopia ≥ +0.5 D were found in 23% and 41% of the adult eye globes as well as 24% and 33% in the senior dogs and 15% and 47% in the geriatric dogs, respectively. The maximal values of the myopia in the adult and geriatric dogs were -2.5 D and -2.75 D, respectively. The maximal values of the hyperopia in the adult and geriatric dogs were 1.75 D and 2.5 D, respectively. No statistically significant correlation was found between the groups. Ametropia is a common refractive state for dogs of different ages. The most frequent refractive state in ametropic mixed-bed dogs in all age groups is hyperopia.
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