雌激素在女性和男性中都起着至关重要的生理作用。它调节生殖功能,并通过其受体维持各种非生殖组织,如雌激素受体1/雌激素受体α(ESR1/ERα),雌激素受体2/雌激素受体β(ESR2/Erβ),和G蛋白偶联的雌激素受体1(GPER)。这种激素对女性卵巢和子宫的正常运作至关重要。雌激素支持男性的睾丸功能和精子发生,并有助于骨密度,心血管健康,和两性的代谢过程。核受体Er-α和Er-β属于刺激细胞增殖的转录激活剂组。在环境中,结构上与雌激素相似的化合物与内源性激素竞争与受体的结合位点并破坏稳态。雌激素水平缺乏平衡会导致不孕,癌症,免疫疾病,和其他条件。外源性内分泌活性化合物,如双酚A(BPA),邻苯二甲酸酯,和有机磷酸酯,可以破坏负责细胞分裂和凋亡过程的信号通路。雌激素及其结构相似化合物的代谢可产生致癌物质。它还可以通过调节对细胞增殖和细胞周期进程至关重要的基因来刺激癌细胞的生长,长期水平升高与激素依赖性癌症如乳腺癌有关。雌激素还可以影响免疫激活的标志物并有助于自身免疫性疾病的发展。激素替代疗法,口服避孕药,体外受精刺激,和激素刺激变性人可以增加患乳腺癌的风险。皮质醇,在结构上与雌激素相似,可以作为与患乳腺癌风险相关的生物标志物。这篇综述的目的是分析雌激素的来源及其对体内稳态的内源性和外源性过程的影响。
Oestrogen plays a crucial physiological role in both women and men. It regulates reproductive functions and maintains various non-reproductive tissues through its receptors, such as oestrogen receptor 1/oestrogen receptor α (ESR1/Erα), oestrogen receptor 2/oestrogen receptor β (ESR2/Erβ), and G protein-coupled oestrogen receptor 1 (GPER). This hormone is essential for the proper functioning of women\'s ovaries and uterus. Oestrogen supports testicular function and spermatogenesis in men and contributes to bone density, cardiovascular health, and metabolic processes in both sexes. Nuclear receptors Er-α and Er-β belong to the group of transcription activators that stimulate cell proliferation. In the environment, compounds similar in structure to the oestrogens compete with endogenous hormones for binding sites to receptors and to disrupt homeostasis. The lack of balance in oestrogen levels can lead to infertility, cancer, immunological disorders, and other conditions. Exogenous endocrine-active compounds, such as bisphenol A (BPA), phthalates, and organic phosphoric acid esters, can disrupt signalling pathways responsible for cell division and apoptosis processes. The metabolism of oestrogen and its structurally similar compounds can produce carcinogenic substances. It can also stimulate the growth of cancer cells by regulating genes crucial for cell proliferation and cell cycle progression, with long-term elevated levels linked to hormone-dependent cancers such as breast cancer. Oestrogens can also affect markers of immunological activation and contribute to the development of autoimmune diseases. Hormone replacement therapy, oral contraception, in vitro fertilisation stimulation, and hormonal stimulation of transgender people can increase the risk of breast cancer. Cortisol, similar in structure to oestrogen, can serve as a biomarker associated with the risk of developing breast cancer. The aim of this review is to analyse the sources of oestrogens and their effects on the endogenous and exogenous process of homeostasis.