Novel tactics for controlling insect pests in perennial fruit and nut crops are needed because target pests often display decreased susceptibility to chemical controls due to overreliance on a handful of active ingredients and regulatory issues. As an alternative to chemical controls, entomopathogenic fungi could be utilized as biological control agents to manage insect pest populations. However, development of field ready products is hampered by a lack of basic knowledge. Development of field ready products requires collecting, screening, and characterizing a greater variety of potential entomopathogenic fungal species and strains. Creation of a standardized research framework to study entomopathogenic fungi will aid in identifying the potential mechanisms of biological control activity that fungi could possess, including antibiotic metabolite production; strains and species best suited to survive in different climates and agroecosystems; and optimized combinations of entomopathogenic fungi and novel formulations. This mini review therefore discusses strategies to collect and characterize new entomopathogenic strains, test different potential mechanisms of biocontrol activity, examine ability of different species and strains to tolerate different climates, and lastly how to utilize this information to develop strains into products for growers.

There is a need for the development of sustainable, nonchemical tick management strategies. Mycoacaricide and mycoinsecticide product development worldwide has focused primarily on fungi in the genera Beauveria (Hypocreales: Cordycipitaceae) and Metarhizium (Hypocreales: Clavicipitaceae). Microbial biopesticides containing entomopathogenic fungi have potential in tick management. However, despite considerable progress in the development of fungal biopesticides over the past 20 years, the establishment of commercial products available for use against ticks continues to be slow. We reviewed published scientific literature and compiled a comprehensive list of reports of the effectiveness of commercial biopesticides based on the fungal genera Metarhizium and Beauveria and registered for use in the USA against ixodid ticks under laboratory and field conditions. We also report on results when these biopesticides were used as a part of integrated tick management. Until efficacious fungus-based products become more available, tick management will rely primarily on synthetic chemical acaricides, with natural-product acaricides as the alternative.

Infectious keratitis and sclerokeratitis caused by filamentous fungi prevail in agricultural regions with tropical and subtropical climates and are related mostly to mild abrasive corneal trauma especially after vegetable matter related injury. Biotechnological advances have introduced biological control agents in agriculture such as fungal-based biocontrol agents that use Beauveria and Metarhizium species as bioinsecticides. Keratitis and sclerokeratitis are the most frequent pathologies associated to Beauveria and Metarhizium infection that are the main entomopathogenic fungi used in biological control, although other clinical cases such as sinus, skin lesions, and disseminated infections have been reported. Search of publications was carried out using the databases: Scopus, Pubmed, ScienceDirect, MedLine Scielo. A total of 30 articles were retrieved from 1984 - 2021. From these, 17 keratitis and one sclerokeratitis clinical cases were related to Beauveria infection, while Metarhizium was linked to 13 keratitis cases and two sclerokeratitis clinical cases. Female sex predominated in both Metarhizium and Beauveria clinical cases, there was no significant difference in sclerokeratitis / keratitis by sex. Contact lenses use was a factor reported in 66.6% cases of infection with Metarhizium and 22.2% with Beauveria. The review of clinical cases of keratitis and sclerokeratitis related to Beauveria and Metarhizium suggests the need to consider entomopathogenic fungi in ocular pathologies and the risk that imply the misuse of contact lenses and agricultural/gardening activities.

Mosquitoes transmit many parasites and pathogens to humans that cause significant morbidity and mortality. As such, we are constantly looking for new methods to reduce mosquito populations, including the use of effective biological controls. Entomopathogenic fungi are excellent candidate biocontrol agents to control mosquitoes. Understanding the complex ecological, environmental, and molecular interactions between hosts and pathogens are essential to create novel, effective and safe biocontrol agents. Understanding how mosquitoes recognize and eliminate pathogens such as entomopathogenic fungi may allow us to create insect-order specific biocontrol agents to reduce pest populations. Here we summarize the current knowledge of fungal infection, colonization, development, and replication within mosquitoes and the innate immune responses of the mosquitoes towards the fungal pathogens, emphasizing those features required for an effective mosquito biocontrol agent.

Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), consists of genetically diverse species known to cause significant destruction in several crops around the world. Nymphs and adults of B. tabaci cause damage to plants during feeding, and they can act as a virus vector, thus causing significant yield loss to crops in the tropical and subtropical regions. Chemical pesticides are widely used to control B. tabaci due to their immediate action, but this approach has several drawbacks including food safety issues, insecticide resistance, environmental pollution, and the effect on non-target organisms. A biological control agent using entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) has therefore been developed as an alternative against the conventional use of chemical pesticides in an integrated pest management (IPM) system to effectively control B. tabaci. It is apparent from this review that species of hyphomycetes fungi are the most common EPF used to effectively control B. tabaci, with the second instar being the most susceptible stage of infection. Therefore, this review article focuses specifically on the control of B. tabaci with special emphasis on the use of EPF as biological control agents and their integration in IPM.

The stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) (Diptera: Muscidae), remains a significant economic pest globally in situations where intensive animal production or horticultural production provide a suitable developmental medium. Stable flies have been recorded as pests of livestock and humans since the late 1800s to early 1900s. Over 100 years of research has seen numerous methodologies used to control this fly, in particular to protect cattle from flies to minimise production losses. Reduced milk production in dairy cows and decreased weight gain in beef cattle account for losses in the US alone of > $2000 million annually. Rural lifestyles and recreation are also seriously affected. Progress has been made on many control strategies against stable fly over a range of chemical, biological, physical and cultural options. This paper reviews management options from both a historical and a technical perspective for controlling this pest. These include the use of different classes of insecticides applied to affected animals as toxicants or repellents (livestock and humans), as well as to substrates where stable fly larvae develop. Arthropod predators of stable flies are listed, from which potential biological control agents (e.g., wasps, mites, and beetles) are identified. Biopesticides (e.g., fungi, bacteria and plant-derived products) are also discussed along with Integrated Pest Management (IPM) against stable flies for several animal industries. A review of cultural and physical management options including trapping, trap types and methodologies, farm hygiene, scheduled sanitation, physical barriers to fly emergence, livestock protection and amendments added to animal manures and bedding are covered. This paper presents a comprehensive review of all management options used against stable flies from both a historical and a technical perspective for use by any entomologist, livestock producer or horticulturalist with an interest in reducing the negative impact of this pest fly.

The health of the forestlands of the world is impacted by a number of insect pests and some of them cause significant damage with serious economic and environmental implications. Whether it is damage of the North American cypress aphid in South America and Africa, or the destruction of maple trees in North America by the Asian long horned beetle, invasive forest pests are a major problem in many parts of the world. Several studies explored microbial control opportunities of invasive forest pests with entomopathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses, and some are successfully utilized as a part of integrated forest pest management programs around the world. This manuscript discusses some invasive pests and the status of their microbial control around the world with entomopathogenic fungi.

In Africa, adult mosquito populations are primarily controlled with insecticide-impregnated bed nets and residual insecticide sprays. This coupled with widespread applications of pesticides in agriculture has led to increasing insecticide resistance in mosquito populations. We have developed multiple alternative strategies for exploiting transgenic Metarhizium spp. directed at: (i) shortening the lifespan of adult mosquitoes; (ii) reducing transmission potential of Plasmodium spp.; (iii) reducing vector competence via pre-lethal effects. The present challenge is to convert this promising strategy into a validated public health intervention by resolving outstanding issues related to the release of genetically modified organisms. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Fungal entomopathogens have been proposed as environmentally friendly alternatives to chemical control. Unfortunately, their effectiveness continues to be limited by their susceptibility to ultraviolet (UV) light and low moisture. A relatively recent development, the use of fungal entomopathogens as endophytes, might overcome the traditional obstacles impeding the widespread adoption of fungal entomopathogens and also provide a novel alternative for management of insect pests and plant pathogens. In addition, some fungal entomopathogens could also function as biofertilizers. Eighty-five papers covering 109 individual fungal entomopathogen studies involving 12 species in six genera are reviewed. Thirty-eight plant species in 19 families were studied, with maize, common bean, and tomato being the most investigated. Of the 85 papers, 39 (46%) examined the effects of fungal entomopathogen endophytism on 33 insect species in 17 families and eight orders. Thirty-four (40%) examined plant response to endophytism, corresponding to 20 plant species. Various inoculation techniques (e.g., foliar sprays, soil drenching, seed soaking, injections, etc.) are effective in introducing fungal entomopathogens as endophytes, but colonization appears to be localized and ephemeral. The field of insect pathology will not substantially profit from dozens of additional studies attempting to introduce fungal entomopathogens into a wider array of plants, without attempting to understand the mechanisms underlying endophytism, the responses of the plant to such endophytism, and the consequent responses of insect pests and plant pathogens. This review presents several areas that should receive focused attention to increase the probability of success for making this technology an effective alternative to chemical control.