UNASSIGNED: Drug-resistant tuberculosis (DR-TB) is a threat to tuberculosis (TB) control. Extra-pulmonary forms of DR-TB (DR-epTB) are not well characterized. This review summarizes the clinical features, resistance patterns and treatment outcomes of DR-epTB.
UNASSIGNED: We searched EMBASE to identify studies that reported drug-resistance among extra-pulmonary TB sites. All age groups were included in this review. Studies which did not describe drug-resistance patterns at extra-pulmonary TB sites were excluded. We summarized the proportion of resistance to individual anti-TB drugs as well as multi-drug resistant (MDR), pre-extensively drug resistant (pre-XDR) and extensively drug-resistant (XDR) TB.
UNASSIGNED: Eighteen studies with a total of 10,222 patients with extra-pulmonary TB of whom 1,236 (12.0%) had DR-epTB, were included in this review. DR-epTB was mostly reported in young people aged 28 to 46 years. While TB meningitis is the most commonly studied form, adenitis is the commonest form of DR-epTB reported in 21% to 47%. Central nervous system TB (3.8% to 51.6%), pleural TB (11.3% to 25.9%), skeletal TB (9.4% to 18.1%), abdominal TB (4.3% to 6.5%), and disseminated TB (3.8%) are also encountered. The HIV co-infection rate is reported to be 5.0% to 81.3% while 2.6% to 25.4 % have diabetes mellitus. Clinical symptoms of DR-epTB are consistent with morbidity in the affected body system. Among patients with DR-epTB, the proportion of MDR TB was 5% to 53% while that for pre-XDR TB and XDR TB was 3% to 40% and 4% to 33%, respectively. Treatment success is achieved in 26% to 83% of patients with DR-epTB while death, treatment loss-to-follow up, and treatment failure occur in 2% to 76%, 7% to 15%, and 0% to 4% respectively. Patients with DR-epTB were reported to have poorer outcomes than those with pulmonary DR-TB and extra-pulmonary drug-susceptible TB.
UNASSIGNED: Clinical features of DR-epTB are similar to those observed among people with drug-susceptible EPTB but patients with DR-epTB post worse treatment outcomes.

OBJECTIVE: HIV/AIDS is a known risk factor for the development of pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB). However, the association is less clear between HIV and extrapulmonary tuberculosis (EPTB). We conducted a systematic review to determine the association between HIV and EPTB.
METHODS: We searched the electronic databases Medline, Embase, and relevant conference literature using defined search terms for EPTB and HIV. Only publications in English and only studies reporting adjusted estimates were included, while our search criteria did not include restriction by age or geographic location of study participants. Qualitative and quantitative analyses (including I 2 test for heterogeneity) were performed.
RESULTS: Sixteen studies (15 cross-sectional and 1 case-control) conducted from 1984 to 2016 were included in the final analyses after screening 5163 articles and conference abstracts. Our qualitative analysis showed heterogeneity in study design and study population characteristics along with a medium/high risk of bias in the majority of studies. While most of the individual studies showed increased odds of EPTB compared with PTB among HIV-infected individuals, we did not provide an overall pooled estimate, as the I 2 value was high at 93% for the cross-sectional studies.
CONCLUSIONS: While an association between HIV and EPTB is observed in most individual studies, the high heterogeneity and risk of bias in these studies highlight the need for further well-designed prospective cohort studies to assess the true risk of EPTB in the HIV-infected patient population.