%0 Journal Article
%T Unobtrusive Skin Temperature Estimation on a Smart Bed.
%A Garcia-Molina G
%A Winger T
%A Makaram N
%A Rao MR
%A Chernega P
%A Shcherbakov Y
%A McGhee L
%A Chellamuthu V
%A Veneros E
%A Mills R
%A Aloia M
%A Reid KJ
%J Sensors (Basel)
%V 24
%N 15
%D 2024 Jul 27
%M 39123929
%F 3.847
%R 10.3390/s24154882
%X The transition from wakefulness to sleep occurs when the core body temperature decreases. The latter is facilitated by an increase in the cutaneous blood flow, which dissipates internal heat into the micro-environment surrounding the sleeper's body. The rise in cutaneous blood flow near sleep onset causes the distal (hands and feet) and proximal (abdomen) temperatures to increase by about 1 °C and 0.5 °C, respectively. Characterizing the dynamics of skin temperature changes throughout sleep phases and understanding its relationship with sleep quality requires a means to unobtrusively and longitudinally estimate the skin temperature. Leveraging the data from a temperature sensor strip (TSS) with five individual temperature sensors embedded near the surface of a smart bed's mattress, we have developed an algorithm to estimate the distal skin temperature with a minute-long temporal resolution. The data from 18 participants who recorded TSS and ground-truth temperature data from sleep during 14 nights at home and 2 nights in a lab were used to develop an algorithm that uses a two-stage regression model (gradient boosted tree followed by a random forest) to estimate the distal skin temperature. A five-fold cross-validation procedure was applied to train and validate the model such that the data from a participant could only be either in the training or validation set but not in both. The algorithm verification was performed with the in-lab data. The algorithm presented in this research can estimate the distal skin temperature at a minute-level resolution, with accuracy characterized by the mean limits of agreement [-0.79 to +0.79 °C] and mean coefficient of determination R2=0.87. This method may enable the unobtrusive, longitudinal and ecologically valid collection of distal skin temperature values during sleep. Therelatively small sample size motivates the need for further validation efforts.