Abstract：
OBJECTIVE: Food security plays a critical role in achieving Sustainable Development Goal 2 (SDG-2) and public health outcomes; however, its effectiveness under the impact of international sanctions remains unclear. This study examined the impact of international sanctions on achieving SDG-2 and food security.
METHODS: This cross-country empirical analysis was based on a combined database that included data from the Global Sanctions Data Base (GSDB), Food and Agriculture Organization Statistics (FAOSTAT) and United Nations (UN) Comtrade.
METHODS: First, an instrumental variable (IV) strategy was used to deal with the endogeneity of other events in target countries\' sanctions. Second, a two-stage least square (2SLS) regression was conducted using high-dimensional fixed effects. Third, based on the Structural Gravity Model, a Poisson pseudo maximum likelihood (PPML) regression on bilateral agricultural trade was performed.
RESULTS: Findings from this study showed that international sanctions had a negative impact on the achievement of SDG-2 and food security, which was associated with poor public health outcomes. This was mainly evidenced by an increase in the prevalence of undernourishment and a high population of children with moderate or severe stunting. Sanctions were also shown to distort the agricultural value-added share and decrease domestic agricultural production. In addition, sanctions impeded bilateral import supply, which resulted in a lower import value and quantity, and a higher import price.
CONCLUSIONS: Food security and agricultural sustainability associated with hunger, nutrition and health from 1950 to 2019 were significantly associated with international sanctions. Under the uncertain shock of international sanctions, progress towards SDG-2 deteriorated, mainly for Targets 2.1, 2.2 and 2.a, and the impact was non uniform across all targets. From a sociopolitical perspective, the empirical findings of this study provide vital lessons for policymakers and public health communities to increase humanitarian outreach.
METHODS: This cross-country empirical analysis was based on a combined database that included data from the Global Sanctions Data Base (GSDB), Food and Agriculture Organization Statistics (FAOSTAT) and United Nations (UN) Comtrade.
METHODS: First, an instrumental variable (IV) strategy was used to deal with the endogeneity of other events in target countries\' sanctions. Second, a two-stage least square (2SLS) regression was conducted using high-dimensional fixed effects. Third, based on the Structural Gravity Model, a Poisson pseudo maximum likelihood (PPML) regression on bilateral agricultural trade was performed.
RESULTS: Findings from this study showed that international sanctions had a negative impact on the achievement of SDG-2 and food security, which was associated with poor public health outcomes. This was mainly evidenced by an increase in the prevalence of undernourishment and a high population of children with moderate or severe stunting. Sanctions were also shown to distort the agricultural value-added share and decrease domestic agricultural production. In addition, sanctions impeded bilateral import supply, which resulted in a lower import value and quantity, and a higher import price.
CONCLUSIONS: Food security and agricultural sustainability associated with hunger, nutrition and health from 1950 to 2019 were significantly associated with international sanctions. Under the uncertain shock of international sanctions, progress towards SDG-2 deteriorated, mainly for Targets 2.1, 2.2 and 2.a, and the impact was non uniform across all targets. From a sociopolitical perspective, the empirical findings of this study provide vital lessons for policymakers and public health communities to increase humanitarian outreach.
摘要：
目标：粮食安全在实现可持续发展目标2（SDG-2）和公共卫生成果方面发挥着关键作用；然而，在国际制裁的影响下，其有效性仍不清楚。这项研究考察了国际制裁对实现可持续发展目标2和粮食安全的影响。
方法：这项跨国实证分析基于一个组合数据库，其中包括来自全球制裁数据库（GSDB）的数据，粮食及农业组织统计（FAOSTAT）和联合国（UN）商品贸易统计。
方法：首先，使用工具变量（IV）策略来处理目标国家制裁中其他事件的内生性。第二,使用高维固定效应进行两阶段最小二乘(2SLS)回归.第三，基于结构重力模型，对双边农产品贸易进行了泊松伪最大似然(PPML)回归。
结果：这项研究的结果表明，国际制裁对实现SDG-2和粮食安全产生了负面影响，这与不良的公共卫生结果有关。这主要表现在营养不足的患病率增加和中度或重度发育迟缓的儿童人口众多。制裁也被证明扭曲了农业增值份额，减少了国内农业生产。此外,制裁阻碍了双边进口供应，导致进口价值和数量下降，和更高的进口价格。
结论：与饥饿相关的粮食安全和农业可持续性，从1950年到2019年，营养和健康与国际制裁密切相关。在国际制裁的不确定冲击下,实现SDG-2的进展恶化，主要针对目标2.1、2.2和2。a,所有目标的影响都不一致。从社会政治的角度来看，本研究的实证结果为政策制定者和公共卫生界增加人道主义外展提供了重要的经验教训.
方法：这项跨国实证分析基于一个组合数据库，其中包括来自全球制裁数据库（GSDB）的数据，粮食及农业组织统计（FAOSTAT）和联合国（UN）商品贸易统计。
方法：首先，使用工具变量（IV）策略来处理目标国家制裁中其他事件的内生性。第二,使用高维固定效应进行两阶段最小二乘(2SLS)回归.第三，基于结构重力模型，对双边农产品贸易进行了泊松伪最大似然(PPML)回归。
结果：这项研究的结果表明，国际制裁对实现SDG-2和粮食安全产生了负面影响，这与不良的公共卫生结果有关。这主要表现在营养不足的患病率增加和中度或重度发育迟缓的儿童人口众多。制裁也被证明扭曲了农业增值份额，减少了国内农业生产。此外,制裁阻碍了双边进口供应，导致进口价值和数量下降，和更高的进口价格。
结论：与饥饿相关的粮食安全和农业可持续性，从1950年到2019年，营养和健康与国际制裁密切相关。在国际制裁的不确定冲击下,实现SDG-2的进展恶化，主要针对目标2.1、2.2和2。a,所有目标的影响都不一致。从社会政治的角度来看，本研究的实证结果为政策制定者和公共卫生界增加人道主义外展提供了重要的经验教训.
